Chronography of Islam and the Middle East
See also North Africa for events relating to the Islamic World
(links to selected African countries from here, e.g. Algeria, Egypt)
See Israel for events relating to the Palestinian State
Page last modified 20 August
2023
Choropleth map, % growth Islamic
population by country 1960 � 2000.
For history of Jerusalem and the Crusades,
see Christian History.
See
also Iraq
See
also Eastern
Europe for events relating to Muslims in former Yugoslavia
See
also Iran
See
also Lebanon
See
also Saudi
Arabia
See
also Syria
See
also Ottoman
Turkey
See
also Yemen
For oil exploration and
drilling see geology
Bahrain � see Appendix 0
Jordan � see Appendix 1
Kuwait � see Appendix 2
Oman � see Appendix 3
Qatar� - see Appendix 4
United Arab Emirates � See Appendix 6
Arab Spring 2010-11
20 February 2011, Arab Spring protests in Morocco and Iraq.
Meanwhile over 200 people were killed during protests in Benghazi, Libya.
14 February 2011, Arab Spring protests in Jordan, also
Benghazi in Libya.
12 February 2011, Clashes
between demonstrators and police in Algiers.
See also Egypt for protests against Preisdent Mubarak
25 January� 2011, Arab Spring protests in Egypt and Lebanon,
14 January�
2011, In the turmoil of the Arab Spring, the Tunisian Government fell after
a month of protests.
4 January�
2011,
Tunisian
street vendor Mohamed Bouazizi died after
setting fire to himself on 17 December 2010. This sparked anti-government
protests in Tunisia and other Arab nations, which became known as the Arab
Spring.
17 December 2010, The Arab Spring began when a Tunisian
graduate set fire to himself in protest at police who stopped him trading
without a permit, after he had failed to secure paid employment.
11
November 2004,
Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat (born 1929) died of a brain
haemorrhage and was buried in Cairo, aged 74. Mahmoud
Abbas took over as head of the PLO.
Al Quaeda
attacks
7 August 2003, Amrozi bin Nurhasyim, who played
a key role in the Bali nightclub bombing in 2002, was sentenced to death by
firing squad.
12 October 2002. A large bomb hit the Sari
nightclub in Bali, a popular holiday destination for Australians and other Westerners,
and the only Hindu island in the otherwise Muslim republic of Indonesia. 202
died and over 300 were injured, mostly Australian tourists. Al Quaeda,
the organisation which hit the USA on '9-11', 2002, was blamed. Australia had
been instrumental in helping East Timor to achieve independence from Indonesia,
and the decadence of Bali did not fit with Islamic ideals.
20 August 1998, The USA
launched attacks against the Al Shifa
pharmaceuticals and chemical plant� in
Sudan and cruise missile attacks against Al
Quaeda bases in Afghanistan in retaliation for the 7 August 1998 embassy
bombs.
7 August 1998. Osama Bin Laden�s Al-Qaeda terrorists bombed
the USA embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, and wounding
over 4,000.
23 August 1996, Osama bin Laden issued a 30-page Fatwa declaring
war on the USA.
1993, In the 20 years after the
oil price hike of 1973 the Middle East oil exporters received around US$ 2
trillion (million million). Most of this went to Saudi Arabia and the Gulf
States; large sujms also went to Libgya, Iraq�
and Algeria. Poorer Arab countries received around US$100 billion in
loans and grants/ Hpwever this money did npot proeduce an Arab Singapore or
Japan, because it was not invested in industrial infrastructure; rather, it was
spend on comsumption or invested back in the West. Investment in the Arab world has been held back by the various threats
of war and instability; war with Israel, Gulf conflicts, and coups.
14 December 1993. Yasser Arafat, PLO leader, made his first official
visit to Britain.
30 October 1992, A Middle East peace conference began in
Madrid, Spain.
4 January 1992, Tunisian President Zine al Abdine Ben Ali, at a
meeting of 16 Arab nations in Tunis, called or a concerted effort to suppress
militant Islamic Fundamentalists. Tunisia had arrested hundreds of supporters
of Al Nahda, a banned political Party that aimed to turn Tunisia into an
Islamic State.,
January 1992, The self-proclaimed Muslim Parliament of Great Britain met
for the first time. This meeting was prompted by the Salman Rushdie affair.
1989, The Arab Maghreb Union was formed, comprising Algeria, Libya,
Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia.
4 January� 1989, British Muslims in Bradford ritually
burnt a copy of Salman
Rushdie�s The Satanic Verses.
20 April 1987, In Algiers, the Palestinian
National Council re-elected Arafat as leader,
but with reduced power.
Palestinian/Islamic
fundamentalist attacks, 1980s, in revenge for Israel�s success agaiisnt its
Arab enemies.
5 September 1986, Muslim
terrorists mounted another attack on the West when they seized a Pan-Am jet at
Karachi Airport, killing 15 and injuring another 127.
27 December 1985, At Rome and Vienna airports,
Abu Nidal terrorists opened fire, killing 18 and injuring 120.
23 November 1985, Palestinian terrorists
hijacked an Egyptian airliner and forced it to land in Malta. Egyptian
commandos stormed the plane on 24 November 1985, but 60 were killed in this operation.
7 October 1985. Palestinian terrorists
hijacked the Italian cruise liner Achille Lauro
in the Mediterranean, killing a US passenger. The terrorists surrendered two
days later.
14 June 1985, Shiite Muslim gunmen
hijacked a US TWA jet and forced it to fly to Beirut. The passengers were held
hostage for 17 days, then released.
1 June 1985, A TWA airliner flying from Athens
to Rome was hijacked by Islamist terrorists and forced to fly to Beirut, where
the hostages were held for 17 days.
1
December 1984,
King Hussein of Jordan held talks with President Mubarak of Egypt on
peace initiatives for the West Bank.
See also Israel for
Israeli attacks in Lebanon
1981, The Gulf Co-operation Council was set up, by countries bordering the
Persian Gulf
25 November 1981, An Arab Summit Conference in Fez quickly
reached deadlock over peace plans for the Middle East.
22 June 1981, Hamas
attacked a travel agent in Greece, killing two people.
1978, The Regents Park Mosque
opened in London.
14 December 1978. Newsweek looked at the growing influence of Islam in Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.
1976, The Arab Monetary Fund was established.
12 January� 1976, The UN Security Council
voted 12-1 to admit the Palestine
Liberation Organisation.
14 October 1974, The United Nations recognised the Palestine Liberation Organisation.
For Yom
Kippur war see
Israeli history.
1965, The Arab Common Market was formed, comprising Egypt, Iraq, Jordan and
Syria.
July 1959, After two years of
unsuccessful exploration by oil companies in Libya, the large Zelten Field was
discovered in the Sirte Basin. In 1963, Libyan crude oil exports exceeded 20
million tons, and reached 125 million tons in 1968.
1 August 1958, King Hussein dissolved the federation of
Jordan with Iraq.
5 March 1958, Syria accused King Saud of
organising a plot to overthrow the Syrian regime and destroy the union of Syria
and Egypt.
14 February 1958, The Arab Federation of Iraq and
Jordan was proclaimed.
1957, The Eisenhower Doctrine was declared by the USA. President Eisenhower stated that the Middle East
was vital to its interests and it would give military aid to any country on the
region that requested it. This Doctrine was aimed at curbing the influence of
the USSR in the region.
11 July 1957. The Aga Khan died in Versoix, Switzerland. He was
born in Karachi on 2 November 1877, and during
World War One, when Turkey was drawn in on the German side, the Aga Khan was
instrumental in reassuring the Moslems of the British Empire that the Allies
had no plans against Islam and to stay loyal to Britain. In 1937 he was
appointed President of the League of Nations. He spent World war Two in
Switzerland and withdrew from further political activity. In 1946, the year of
his 60-year jubilee celebration, he was twice weighed by his subjects and paid
a sum of diamonds of equivalent weight. The sum of US$3,600,000 which resulted
was used by the Khan for building schools and other community projects in
Pakistan. He was also famous as a breeder and trainer of racehorses, winning
the Epsom races five times.
21 November 1955, The first meeting of the Permanent Council
of the Baghdad Pact, later called CENTO, was held.
24 February 1955, Turkey and Iraq signed the Baghdad Pact.
This was an alliance of mutual support against Communist activity within their
borders or as an external threat. Iran joined later in 1955.
24
August 1946,
Elijah
Muhammad was released from prison in Milan, Michigan after four
years, and became the Nation of Islam's undisputed leader.
2 December 1945, The Arab
world began a general boycott of Israel, to geographically isolate the country.
The boycott was to cover not just companies trading with Israel or with Israeli
companies but also companies doing business with these companies. In 1977 the
US, under President
Carter, declared it illegal for US companies to participate in this
boycott. In the 1990s Israel insisted upon the dismantling of the boycott,
which was estimated to have cost the country some US$ 40 billion, as part of
the Peace Process. In 2001, however, the Arab League�s Boycott Office resumed
activities as part of its support for the Palestinians during the Intifada.
22
March 1945,
The Arab League was formed.� The treaty was signed in Cairo this day, with
Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan and Yemen as members.� The League was intended to promote inter-Arab
cultural, technical, and economic links, and to minimise conflict between Arab
states, but it remained a loose association with no central authority. In 1979
the headquarters of the Arab league was moved from Cairo to Tunis, after Egypt was
suspended for signing a peace treaty with Israel. It returned to Cairo in 1992.
Islamic world during World |War Two, for more events in Europe click here
24 February 1945, Egypt
declared war on Germany, largely to secure a place in the
post-War United Nations. The announcement of war was made to the Egyptian
Parliament by Ahmed
Maher; as Maher left the Parliament he was assassinated,
probably by the Muslim Brotherhood.
2 April 1942, The British
under Sir
Miles Lampson forced their way into the Abdin Palace, Cairo, and
demanded that King
Farouk either abdicate or invite Nahas to form a Wafd Party
government. King
Farouk was friendly with the Italians, and like many Egyptians had
pro-Axis sympathies, simply because they believed an Axis victory would rid
Egypt of the British. Meanwhile Rommel was advancing from Libya into western
Egypt. Success for Rommel would cut the Suez Canal and sever
naval communications with India. Lampson hoped that Farouk would abdicate but
instead he chose to appoint Nahas, whose Wafd Party were pro-British.
14 July 1941, A crisis
caused by a pro-Axis coup in Syria in May 1941 came to a conclusion. The Vichy French
administration in Syria had allowed Germans the use of Syrian airfields to
support Iraqi Nationalist rebels fighting British administration in Iraq.
Britain declared that Marshal Petain had breached an undertaking not
to act against the former allies of France, and invaded Syria with a mixed army
of British and Free French troops. Heavy fighting occurred around Beirut
between 8/7 and 14/7, although Damascus was spared. An armistice signed on 14/7
gave French troops and civilians in Syria and Lebanon the choice of
repatriation to France or joining Free French forces.
1 July 1940. Britain
was concerned that the French colonial administration in Lebanon and Syria had
submitted to Vichy rule. Britain was determined that Axis forces should not
occupy this region and mounted a naval blockade of Syria and Lebanon, causing
severe shortages in both countries. Meanwhile Arab Nationalists were demanding
independence from French control.
13
December 1936.
Aga Khan
born.
19 January� 1936, The Aga Khan III, leader of the
Ismaili community, was given his weight in gold, 16 stone, worth about �25,000
to mark his Golden Jubilee (�3.5 million in 2016) to use on social projects.
19 May 1935. T.E. (Thomas Edward) Lawrence, or Lawrence of
Arabia, died six days after a motorcycle accident in a country lane
in Moreton, Dorset; he swerved to avoid two boys on bicycles, and crashed. Colonel Lawrence was sent to Saudi Arabia
to gain information about an Arab revolt in the Arabian desert. Lawrence
realised this revolt could be used to disrupt the Turkish war effort. He
persuaded the British Army in Egypt to supply guns, armoured cars, and even
aircraft. With these, Lawrence led the Arabs on strategic attacks on railways
and captured the town of Aqaba. The Arabs then supported the British
advance in Palestine. Lawrence was
furious when after the War, the Arabs were not given independence.
11
May 1933. Louis Farrakhan,
Muslim religious leader, was born.
1930, In the USA, the Nation of Islam was founded by Wali Farad
(originally Wallace
D Fard), who proclaimed that Black Americans were descendants of an
ancient Muslim tribe.
1929, Yasser Arafat, leader of the Palestine Liberation Organisation, was
born (died 2004).
7 December 1929, Agha Khan III was married at a private
ceremony in Aix les Bains, France, to a former candy store clerk and
dressmaker. He was founder and first President of the all-India Muslim League.
20
February 1928.
Britain recognised the independence of the
Kingdom of Transjordan (now Jordan).
18 October 1925. The French fleet bombarded Damascus
following a Druze insurrection that began on 18 July 1925.
18 July 1925, Insurrection by
the Druze in Syria, against French rule.
4 February 1925, Robert Koldeway, the archaeologist who
excavated Babylon, died.
21 July 1921, The Spanish army was defeated by Moroccan
nationalists at Annual.� The Spanish
sustained over 12,000 casualties.� Adb-E-Krim,
nationalist leader, was eventually defeated by a Franco-Spanish force in 1926. Abd E Krim was held on the island of
Reunion till 1947 but was then given permission to live in France.� However
he succeeded in escaping to Egypt where he became an inspiration to Arab
nationalism generally.
18 December 1920. Britain and
France agreed on the borders of Syria and Palestine.
24 July 1920. A French
expeditionary force occupied Damascus and the port of Aleppo. The Emir Faisal,
installed by the British in March, fled.
5 May 1920, Britain
and France rejected a declaration of Syrian independence and, hastily convening
a meeting of the Supreme Council of the League of Nations, they declared the
intention of dividing Lebanon from Syria (both under French control) and Iraq
(undivided) under British control.
For main
European events of World War One see France-Germany
11 January 1912, Abdul Haq
Akorwi, Pakistani theologian, founder of the Darul Uloom Haqqania
seminary; was born in Akora Khattak, British India (died 1988)
29 September 1911. Italy
declared war on Turkey, having been
assured of the neutrality of other European countries.� The Italian Navy bombarded Preveza, and
Italian forces landed at Tripoli and in Cyrenicia. This was in retaliation for
the alleged mistreatment of Italians in Libya. The Italians expected the Arabs
to welcome them as liberators from Turkish rule, but instead the Arabs sided
with the Turks in resisting Italian rule. In May 1912 Italy invaded some
islands off Turkey, including Rhodes, to put further pressure on Turkey. Then
Italy had some unexpected good fortune when in 1912 Montenegro, Serbia,
Bulgaria and Greece started the Balkan War against Turkey, forcing the Ottomans
to surrender Libya to Italy. However Arab resistance continued and despite a permanent
Italian garrison of 50,000 troops Italian rule only covered Tripoli and other
major towns. At least, though, Italy could now claim to have its own African
colony.
3
August 1910.
Muslim Druzes killed 100 Jews in Palestine.
14 April 1903, Bulgarians massacred 165 Muslims in Macedonia.
1890, Britain�s first mosque opened, at Woking, Surrey.
23 March 1889, The Ahmadiyya
Islamic Movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in India.
15 August 1888, T E (Thomas Edward) Lawrence, British soldier
and writer known as Lawrence of Arabia, was born at Tremadoc,
Wales.
2 November 1877, Aga Khan III, spiritual leader, was born.
14 April 1872, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Islamic scholar, was born.
1867, The Deoband, or
House of Learning, was established as a centre of Islamic theology in India by Muhammad Abid
Husain in the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
1734, The Koran was first
translated into English.
See also Turkey
for more on Ottoman Empire
20 March 1546, Sheihk Bahai, theologian and wscientist, was born.
27 May 1529, Ad-Din Barbarossa completed his conquest of Algeria
(Algiers fell, 1518), bringing the Ottoman
Empire to its peak.
1500, Islam reached Brunei.
1440, Islam reached Ternate, the
Spice Islands.
1414, Islam, having reached
Sumatra in the late 1300s, came to Malacca in 1414.
24 February 1304, Ibn Battutah, Arab explorer, was born in
Tangier Morocco.
1471, The Portuguese captired the Moroccan
port of Tangier.
1400, The Mongols under Tamerlane
destroyed Damascus and in 1401 went on to sack Baghdad. However Christian
Europeans were disappointed when Tamerlane decided he had been insulted by the
Chinese Emperor and took his forces back eastwards.
26 April 1280, Battle of Jazurah.
3 September 1260, The Mamluks defeated the Mongols
at the Battle of Ain Jalut (Goliath�s Spring) in Galilee, marking their first
decisive defeat and the point of maximum expansion of the Mongol Empire.
Damascus had fallen to the Mongols in 1259 and Hulegu, Mongol leader, now
turned on Egypt, the major military power in the region. The Mongols now ruled
an area from the Pacific to the Mediterranean, The Mameluke rulers of Egypt
responded to Hulegu�s demands for capitulation by killing Hulegu�s envoys and marching
into Palestine to fight. Mameluke cavalry was crucial in the Mongol defeat.
8
May 1238,
Al Kamil died in Damascus.
10
December 1198,
Abu al Walid,
also known as Averroes,
Arab philosopher, died in Marrakesh, Morocco.
2 December 1187. Jerusalem surrendered to Saladdin (see 2
November 1192). Saladdin was born in 1138, in Tikrit (Saddam Hussein�s
native town) of Kurdish parents and� was
educated in Syria. In 1164 he accompanies his uncle on a military campaign in
Egypt. The aim was to substitute Sunni for Shia Islam there, and also to drive
the Crusader Franks out of the Levant. The local Syrian leader
died in 1174 and Saladdin defeated his 11 year old successor and seized power.
The Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad gave Saladdin power over all the lands from
Morocco to Syria; Saladdin later extended his rule into Mesopotamia. Saladdin
also subdued the Assassins, a Muslim sect that had twice tried to kill him. He
now attacked the Crusaders, and on 1 July 1187 captured Tiberias after a
six day siege.
After the capture of Jerusalem by Saladdin,
the Franks were almost evicted from the region, holding on only at
Antioch, Tripoli, and Tyre. European states set aside their differences in
panic and three rulers; Richard I of England,
Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, and
Philip Augustus of France, set out on a third
Crusade. The Crusaders marched on Muslim-held Acre, Saladdin
arrived, and there ensued a long battle, control swinging back and forth. After
two years, Acre fell to the Crusaders. Peace negotiations began, (see 2
November 1192), the end result being a marriage of his daughter with Saladdin�s
brother, Al-Malik, who was knighted by Richard. The peace gave the coast to the
Europeans and the interior to the Muslims. In February 1188 Saladdin fell ill
with a fever and died 12 days later aged 55.
4 July 1187, The Battle of the Horns of Hattin (an extinct volcano
crowned with two rocky outcrops). Saladin�s 20,000 strong army defeated Guy of Lusignan,
King of Jerusalem. Guy de Lusignan had made a tactical error in
attempting to relieve Saladin�s siege of Tiberias. Thirst drove Lusignan�s
troops to drink at a nearby lake, where Saladin then attacked them.
1017, Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmed� declared that the Fatimid Caliph Al Hakimbi-Amr
Allah was God, thereby starting the Druze religion.
19 September 945, Cabiz, Islamic theologian, was executed for
maintaining that Christ was superior to Muhammad.
7 December 909, Sa�id Ibn Hussein was proclaimed Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi (�the divinely guided one�) in Tunis. He
established an Isma�ili Shiite caliphate in opposition to
the caliphate of Baghdad, and founded the Fatimid
Dynasty.
908, The province of Ifriqiya
(modern Tunisia, name equivalent to �Africa), declared independence from
Baghdad. From Ifriqiya came the Fatimids, radical Shiites who claimed descent from Muhammed�s
daughter, Fatima. The fatimids belonged to the radical Isma�ili Shiite
sect, which supported violent overthrow of �illegitimate� Sunni regimes; they were
at odds with the Twelver Shiites, who supported peacefully
awaiting the �hidden twelfth Imam�.
In 969 the
Fatimids invaded Egypt.
860, The Caliphs had made the
mistake of bringing in Turkic horsemen as part of a �slave army�. By this year
the Turkic soldiers virtually ran things leaving the caliphs powerless. The
caliphs resorted to selling off entire provinces to emirs (=military governors) who paid a lump sum and then kept all
taxes from the province for themselves. See 945.
827, The Arabs began to
conquer Sicily, from the east, ultimately reaching as far north as the
Garigliano River, one third of the way north from Naples towards Rome; here
however in 916 they were reversed. The Christian centre of Rome was then safe
from Islamic cinquests. See History of Italy
800, The astrolabe was in common usage across the Islamic world. It was used
to gather astronomical data, and to determine
the correct prayer times. See also maritime travel, 1481.
22 March 765, The Sixth Imam was killed, poisoned by Caliph
al-Mansur.
7/751, Battle of Talas, on the Talas River in modern-day Kazakhstan. Chinese
expansion westwards had met Islamic Arab expansion estwards. Local Uighurs
asked the Arabs for protection. The Arab army under Ziadh Ibn Salih was bolstered
by Uighurs and Tibetans, giving it numerical superiority over the Chinese
forcres led by Korean-born General Gao Xianzhi. The Chinese were attacked in
the rear by Turkic nomadic horsemen, the Karluks, and defeated. Many Chinese
were taken prisoner, including two
experts in papermaking. From the Arab world, papermaking technology then
reached the West. Meanwhile China plunged into civil war and abandoned its
expansion intio central Asia, leaving the region to be Islamicised.
For Abbasid Dynasty, Iraq, see Iraq
History for dates from November 749
17 April 744, Walid II, Islamic leader,
was killed. He was succeeded by Yazid III.
26 January� 724, (-) Yazid II, Islamic leader, died. He was succeeded by Hisham.
9 February 720, Omar II, Islamic leader,
died. He was succeeded by Yazid II.
700, The realm of Islam
now included Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Egypt and the whole of North Africa.
Muslims divided the world into two regions; Dar ul Islam, or �House of
Submission�; that part of the world where Islam was the dominant religion,
and Dar ul Harb, �House of War�, that part of the world
yet to be conquered by Islam. Muslims could only fight Jihad war; war against non-Muslims. It was blasphemy for a Muslim
to fight another Muslim.
682, Arab Islamic
armies seized what is now Morocco from the Vandals. The Vandals had taken the
region, thern known as Mauretania, from the Roman Empire in 429 AD.
Division
of Islam into Shia and Sunni
800, The Islamic world began to split
between a faction
(=Shia) who belived that caliphs flowing and owing their
position to, the murder of Ali were in position illegally; and the other side,
the Sunnis,
who followed custom (=Sunna) who wanted to carry on as
usual with the chain of existing caliphs.
10 October 680. Al-Husayn, son of Ali, was killed in
battle at Kerbala. He was fighting a rival caliph (successor), Yazid, a Sunni Moslem of the Ummayad dynasty. His death
gave birth to Shi�ism; a dissident group of Moslems who claimed that
only the descendants of Mohammed could rightfully interpret the Koran. They saw
Al-Husayn as a
martyr.
24 January� 661, Caliph
Ali was assassinated in Mesopotamia by a former follower. He was
succeeded by Muawiyah, who moved
the seat of government to Damascus and founded the Umayyad Dynasty, which ruled until 750. Supporters
of the late Ali, and his son Husayn, became known as Shiites.
Caliph
Uthman, 644-656
17 June 656, Uthman, the third Caliph (khalifa, meaning both �successor� and
�deputy to God) was assassinated. Ali, Muhammed�s younger cousin and son-in-law,
became caliph.
655, Battle of the Masts. A large scale close sea battle between
the Byzantine and Arab fleets, off Phoenix (modern-day Finike,
southwestAnatolia). The Arabs won.
652, Death of Abbas, uncle of
the Prophet Mohammed, who gave
his name to the Abbasid Dynasty.
651,A standardised version of the Quran was issued by Caliph Uthman.
Caliph
Umar, 634-644, Islam spreads to Persia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt
3 November 644, Caliph Umar was assassinated. His successor, Uthman promoted the formal writing down
of the Quran.
17 September 642. Alexandria, Egypt, surrendered to the Arabs led
by Amr Ibn Al-As. Amr invaded Syria in 633 and attacked Egypt in 639, taking Pelusium in
January 640 and Heliopolis in June 640. In 646 Amr defeated a Greek attempt to
retake Alexandria. Amr died, as governor of Egypt, on 6
January� 664. The Arabs moved on south to
conquer Nubia, also conquering Cyrenicia and Tripolitania in 643.
6 July 640, The Battle of Heliopolis
was fought between Arab Muslim armies and the Byzantine Empire.
1 June 637, Battle of Qadissiya.
Islamic forces had to attack again to quell a Persian resurgence. After Islamic
reinforcements arrived, the Sassanid Persians were finally defeated and the
Persian capital Ctesiphon fell to the Arabs after a two-month siege.
15 August 636. The Byzantine army was crushed by the Moslem Arabs at the Battle of Yarmuk, on the River Yarmuk,
east of the Sea of Galilee. The Arabs, who took Damascus in 635, now controlled
all of Syria. In 637 the Arabs destroyed the Persian army at the Battle of
Qadisiyya. Jerusalem was captured by the Arabs in 638 under Caliph Umar.
635, Dmascus was taken from Byzantium by Islamic Arabs.
22 August 634, Caliph Abu Bakr died and was succeeded by Umar, an advisor of Muhammed. Umar reigned
till 644, and during this time Islam spread to Syria, Persia and Egypt.
30 July 634, The Byzantine army of Emperor Heraclius, defending Damascus against an alliance of
Arab raiders, was
defeated by Khalid at the Battle of Ajnadayn in southern
Palestine.
January 634, Battle of Firaz, Meccan forces under Khalid Ibn al-Walid, of the Quraish tribe (originally an enemy of
Muhammed, but later he converted to Islam) defeated
a Persian-Byzantine
force at the Persian border city of Firaz.
See Saudi Arabia for events of the life of Mohammed.
For pre-Islamic events
in North Africa see Roman Empire
For early history of
Israel and the Jews, also Babylon, Assyria, see Judaism
For Persian Empire see Iran
Appendix 0 � Bahrain
15
March 2011,
Arab
Spring: state of emergency in Bahrain.
18 February 2011, Police opened fire on
protestors in Bahrain.
14 February 2011, Arab Spring protests in Bahrain.
2006, The Shia
Opposition won 40% of votes in elections. Jawad bin Salem al Oraied, a Shia, became
Prime Minister.
2001, Bahrain
reformed, becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected lower chamber and
an independent judiciary.
1999, Sheikh Hamad
bin Isa al Khailfa became king in Bahrain.
1994, Shia
unrest in Bahrain, lasting until 1996.
1981, Bahrain
became a founder-member of the Gulf Co-operation Council.
14 August 1971. Bahrain
became independent from Britain.
1967, Britain relocated its
naval base from Aden to Bahrain, but also announced its intention to close all
bases �east of Suez� by 1971.
28 January� 1950, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, King
of Bahrain from 1999, was born in Riffa, Bahrain.
1939, Britain decreed that the
Hawar Islands belonged to Bahrain, and not Qatar.
1880, Britain gained control of
Bahraini foreign policy.
1861, The Sheikh of Bahrain
agreed to abstain from piracy, war and slavery, in return for British military
support.
1783, The Iranians were expelled from Bahrain by
the Arabic Utub tribe, whose ruling family the al-Khalifas, still govern Kuwait
today.
1602, Persia conquered Bahrain.
1521, The Portuguese took
control of Bahrain.
Appendix 1 � Jordan
25 February 2011, Arab Spring protests in Jordan.
7 February 1999, King
Hussein of Jordan (born 1935) died of cancer.� His son became King
Adbullah II of Jordan.
26 October 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a
symbolic peace treaty, ending 46 years of war, at a ceremony attended by US President Clinton.
1991, 24 years
of martial law ended. Ban on political Parties was lifted.
4/1989, Following
economic reforms agreed with the IMF, Jordan announced cuts to the subsidies on
some basic foodstuffs, of 15%-50%. This provoked riots, especially in some southern
towns such as Maan, whose Bedoiun and East Bank Jordanian population had
traditionally been very loyal to the King. King
Hussein was on an official visit to the USA when news of the
disturbances broke; he immediate;y returned home.� He refused to cancel the subsidies cuts, but
did announce steps towards democracy in the country. He promised a General
Election by end-1989, the first for 22 years.
31 July 1988, King
Hussein of Jordan announced that he is ceding the Israeli-controlled
West Bank to the PLO.
9
October 1984,
Jordan mended relations with Egypt when Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak visited Amman.
Egypt had been despised by the Arab world since the late President Anwar Sadat
signed a peace treaty with |Israel at Camp David in 1979. Now King Hussein
of Jordan met with Arab hostility for mending relation with Egypt, a move
sparked by problems in the Jordanian economy arising from a downturn in trade
resulting form the Iran-Iraq war.
7 July 1972, Talal bin Abdullah, King of
Jordan, died.
1
December 1971, King Hussein
of Jordan ruled out any further talks with Palestinian guerrillas after the
assassination of Wasfi Tell on 28 November 1971.
28
November 1971,
Palestinian terrorists assassinated Wasfi Tell, Prime Minister of Jordan.
27 September 1970, PLO leader Yasser Arafat signed a truce with King Hussein
of Jordan after the PLO had been ejected from Jordan in a 10-day fight known to
the PLO as Black September.
10 February 1970, Jordan imposed greater controls on guerrilla
activity.
4 August 1968, Israeli aircraft bombed Palestinian bases in Jordan.
30 January� 1962,
King
Abdullah II of Jordan was born.
2 November 1958. Last
British troops left Jordan.
17 July 1958, British troops landed at Mafrak, 50 miles north of
the Jordanian capital Amman, in order to protect the monarchy in that country. King Abdullah
of Jordan was, like the assassinated King Faisal of Iraq (14 July 1958) a Hashemite, and there was resistance
also in Jordan, like Iraq, from Bedouins
who saw the Hashemite rulers as
colonial impositions. Further British troops arrived by sea at Aqaba. China and
the USSR protested. King Abdullah attempted to appease his Arab
neighbours by removing the British troops. Nevertheless King Abdullah�s plane was
attacked by Syrian fighters whilst he was on route to a holiday in Europe, and
he was ordered to land at Damascus. King Abdullah ignored this order and returned
to Amman. Bad relations between Syria and Jordan continued.
28 April 1957, King Hussein of Jordan visited King Saud of
Saudi Arabia. The two rulers agreed that the crisis in Jordan is a
purely internal affair; Saudi Arabia paid the first instalment of financial aid
to Jordan.
25 April 1957, King Hussein proclaimed martial law in Jordan;
the USA despatched the 6th fleet to the Mediterranean. On 29 April 1957 the
USSR protested at this move.
24 April 1957. In Jordan, Ibrahim Hashem formed a conservative,
pro-Western, government following demonstrations.
14 January� 1956, Truce agreed between
Israel and Jordan.
13 January� 1956, Anti-US riots in Jordan.
2 May 1953, King Hussein II became King of Jordan,
succeeding his father King Talal, who was deposed in August 1952.
11 August 1952. Hussein became King of Jordan. He was
pro-Western, like the Saudi ruler, King Saud, and supported Arab Nationalism
against a growing movement for Arab Socialism.�
His father, King Talal, had been deposed by the Jordanian
Parliament due to mental illness.
20 July 1951. King Abdullah of Jordan was shot dead in
Jerusalem by an Arab Nationalist.� Other
Arab leaders were jealous of his leadership of the Palestinians, and his
grandson Hussein,
aged 15 in 1951, became King of Jordan a year later.
2 March 1950, Tawfik Abu al-Huda resigned as Prime Minister
of Jordan for reasons of health, but also because he did not want to �be party
to a settlement with Israel�.
2 June 1949. Transjordan was renamed Jordan.
25 May 1946. Transjordan
(Jordan) proclaimed its independence, with Emir Abdullah ibn Husayn as King.
Husayn (born 1882) was assassinated in Jerusalem in 1951.
2 October 1940, Prince Muhammad bin Talal of Jordan was born
in Amman
14 November 1935, King Hussein of Jordan was born in Aman, son
of King
Talal.
25 May 1923, The State of
Transjordan, now Jordan, became independent.
1921, Hashemite King Abdullah
was proclaimed ruler of Transjordan.
22 August 1812, Swiss explorer and archaeologist John Lewis
Burckhardt rediscovered Petra (in modern Jordan) ancient capital of
the Nabatean Arabs.
Appendix 2 � Kuwait
15 January� 2006, Sheikh Jaber III, Emir of
Kuwait, died (born 29 June 1926)
2003, Islamists made gains in
general elections.
1994, Iraq formally recognised
Kuwaiti sovereignty.
14 March 1992, The Emir of Kuwait, Sheikh Jaber al Ahmed al Sabah,
returned home.
6 November 1991. The last of the oil wells set alight in Kuwait by
retreating Iraqis was extinguished.
4 March 1991, The Kuwaiti
Crown prince returned to Kuwait. There was massive destruction in Kuwait and much
had been looted. Almost all of Kuwait�s 950 oil
wells had been set on fire, creating a vast pall of black smoke and an oil
slick covering hundreds of square kilometres in the Gulf. The Kuwaiti
authorities began to impose martial law but there were determined calls for
democratic reform in Kuwait.
27 February 1991, Saudi forces entered Kuwait City, evacuated by Iraqi
invaders. US forces had moved in behind the Iraqi army and cut off its retreat.
The US lost 184 men; the Allies took 80,000 Iraqi
prisoners and an estimated 80-100,000 Iraqi soldiers died. Kuwait would take an
estimated US$ 50 billion to rebuild, and Iraq would cost US$ 200 billion.
1966, A �neutral zone� between Saudi
Arabia and Kuwait was divided between the two countries.
14 May 1963, Kuwait was admitted to the United Nations.
20 July
1961, In a move to thwart Iraqi claims on
Kuwait, the Arab League admitted Kuwait as a member.
1
July 1961. British troops were stationed in
Kuwait in case of an attack by Iraq. In
June 1961 Kuwait gained independence from Britain and a week later Iraq called for �a return of Kuwait to the
Iraqi homeland�. On 30 June 1961 Kuwait requested assistance from the UK,
and Royal Marines were sent out. The
British troops remained for two years.
25 June
1961, Iraq claimed newly-independent
Kuwait as Iraqi, on the grounds that both had been part of the Ottoman Empire
and arbitrarily divided by Britain.
19
June 1961, Kuwait became independent.
1946, Kuwait�s oil revenue in its first
year of commercial production was just US$ 500,000. This rapidly became
hundreds of millions of dollars a year by the early 1950s.
1918, At the end of World War One, the Ottoman Empire was
dismantled and Kuwait became a British Protectorate.
1899, Sheikh Mubarak of Kuwait granted Britain
control of Kuwaiti foreign relations.
1756, The Al-Sabah
ruling dynasty of Kuwait was founded.
1546, Ottoman rule
over Kuwait began, enduring until 1918.
1258, Mongol rule of
Kuwait began, enduring until 1546.
750, Kuwait came under the control of the Abbasid Caliphate, enduring until 1258.
Appendix 3 � Oman
2003,
All Omani citizens aged over 21 were allowed to vote. Previously the franchise
had been restricted to tribal leaders, and some chosen businessmen and
intellectuals.
1999,
Oman and the UAE settled a longstanding border dispute.
1997,
Women were allowed to stand for the first timeto stand and vote in elections.
Two women were elected.
1975,
The Dhofar Revolt was suppressed with the help of tropps from Iran and Jordan.
1970, Until this year Oman was
virtually a mediaeval feudal state, with internal travel banned; Omanis were
expected to remain near the village they were born in. TV�s radios, even books
and glasses, were banned until then. This year Sultan Qaboos bin Said seized
power from his father in a bloodless coup, and began a programme of
modernisation.
1965, A Leftist revolt in Dhofar
began.
1959, Sultan bin Taimur regained
control of the inland areas of Oman, which had been in a state of rebellion
against the government since 1913.
19 July 1957, The Imam of Oman rebelled against
the Sultan of Oman, who requested British aid.
1932, Sultan bin Taimur came to power, and adopted an
isolationist, anti-Western, stance.
1920, The
Sultan of Oman recognised the semi-autonomy of the inland areas, in a peace
deal brokered by the British.
1913, Oman
became unstable, with the inland areas ruled by the Ibadite Imams whulst the
Sultan controlled the coast.
1853, The �pirate coast�along the south of the Persian Gulf was
notorious for pirates originating frim here, and venturing as far as the the
Arabian and Red Seas. In 1853 Britain forced the sheikhs of this coast to sign
a Treaty of Perpetual Peace, still in force today, protecting the East India
Company�s ships from India. This gave the region the name of Trucial Oman.
1749, Ahmad bin Said was elected Imam; the Persians
were expelled. He founded the Al-Said dynasty.
1743, Persia captured Muscat.
1650, Imam Nasir Ibn Murshid, of the Yariba Dynasty,
expelled the Portuguese from Oman.
1507, The Portuguese took control of Oman.
750, An independent Ibadi Sultanate was established in Oman.
Appendix 4 � Qatar
2001, Qatar settled
long-standing border disputes with Saudi Arabia and Bahrain.
1999, Qatar held elections to
appoint municipal councils; a step towards democratisation.
1995, Sheikh Hamad overthrew his
father, Shaikh
Halifa, in a bloodless coup.
1972, Accesson of Shaikh Halifa,
who had deposed his father Emir Sheikh Ahmad in a bloodless coup
1 September 1971, Qatar
became independent from Britain.
1970, Qatar adopted a new
Constitution, confirming the Emirate as an absolute monarchy.
1916, Qatar became a British
Protectorate.
17 July 1913, Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani, Emir of Qatar
since 1878, died aged 88 (born 1825)
1867, Doha was devastated in a
conflict with neighbiourign Bahrain.
1700s, The pearling industry was
established in Kuwait.
Appendix 6 � United Arab Emirates
Demography of United
Arab Emirates
13
August 2020,
Israel and the United Arab Emirates created diplomatic links; Israel undertook
not to �annex more� of the West Bank. Palestinians were disappointed. Israel
and the Sunni Arab world have been united by a mutual fear of Shia Iran.
2004, Sheikh Zayed died, and was
succeeded by his son, Sheikh Khalifa.
2000, Sharia Law was introduced
in Fujairah, and an Indonesian woman was sentenced to detah by stoning.
1996, Iran occupied the Gulf
islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs, which are also claimed by
the UAE.
1993, Official UAE census
figures show that three quarters of the UAE population comprises immigrants
from Africa and Asia.
1991, The UAE offered bases to
Western forces after Kuwait had been liberated.
1987, Failed coup in Sharjah.
1972, Ras al Khaymah joined the
UAE Federation.
2 December 1971. United
Arab Emirates established. The UK withdrew as protecting power.
1952, Seven Emirates joined to
form the Trucial Council.
1820, The UAE area became known
as the Trucial Coast after the Uk sogned a treaty with local rulers to curb
piracy.
