Welcome to the Food Desert Website

Feeling hungry? No proper food in the house? Can't face that trek to the shops? Tempted by a burger and some chips from the local takeaway, or a chocolate bar, but it's not really healthy, is it? You may be living in a food desert.  The food desert website tells you all about food deserts, why they affect everybody, the links to globalisation and social exclusion, and how the effects of food deserts may be alleviated or eliminated.

Part I - What are Food Deserts and How to Measure Them?

What is a food desert (27 July 2010) Original use of the term 'desert' in an urban context, 1990s definitions of 'food desert', food deserts as seen in other countries.

How did food deserts develop (18 May 2009) Development of grocery shopping in the UK from the 17th century (see Part V  UK Small shops) for the most recent developments concerning the independent retailing sector.  Links to economic, technological, social, and political / planning factors that have impacted on the UK grocery retail sector during this period

Where are the food deserts (27 July 2010)? Welcome to Desertia City, see what sorts of places may be food deserts - do you live in one? Now with images of food deserts – see pictures of food deserts in Desertia City!

Measuring Food Deserts (27 July 2010) quantifying their extent and intensity

Part II - Combating obesity and improving diet (back to top)

Obesity figures for the UK (27 July 2010) Definition of obesity, obesity and social factors, and the financial costs of obesity and poor diet

Obesity, causes and medical effects (27 July 2010) the biology of obesity, and its medical effects and links to disease

Obesity levels worldwide (non-UK) (27 July 2010)

What can be done to preserve access to groceries those affected by food deserts (10 August 2009).  This section examines ways to keep small shops open, and more generally, how to preserve easy access to healthy food retailing for the disadvantaged.  For the business climate affecting small grocery shops and the threats to this sector, see Part V, small shops.

Initiatives to improve diet for various groups (27 July 2010)

Part III - Research; food deserts, obesity, retailing, and related subjects (back to top)

Existing published research on food deserts (1 March 2007)

Table of Food Desert Research  - 187 food access - related articles listed here (27 July 2010) .....If you know of a publication that you would like to appear in this section, please email Dr Hillary Shaw (hshaw@harper-adams.ac.uk, or hillshaw@aol.com), with a copy of the article if possible

Part IV - UK Supermarket development (back to top)

UK supermarket sales and profits. (27 July 2010).  Annual financial figures for UK retailers.

Non-Tesco - UK Supermarket timelines and store numbers (27 July 2010).  Details key events, such as takeovers, new product development, new area penetration, in the development of UK grocery retailers, and the number of outlets operated in various years.

Tesco - Supermarket timelines and store numbers (31 May 2010).  Details key events, such as takeovers, new product development, new area penetration, in the development of UK grocery retailers, and the number of outlets operated in various years.

UK Supermarket market share, and size of total UK grocery market (27 July 2010)

Current trends and issues in food retailing, for supermarkets (24 February 2009)

See also PART XII, World Socio-Demographic Data Maps, below

Part V  UK Small shops (back to top)

Current trends and issues in food retailing, for UK small shops (27 July 2010)

Current trends in financial institutions, banks and Post Offices, as relating to small shops (24 February 2009)

Part VI - World (non-UK) grocery retailing. (back to top)

Non UK retailing situation, supermarkets and small shops, brief history of selected retailers

European countries (27 July 2010)

Countries from Asia, Africa, and the Americas (27 July 2010)

See also PART XII, World Socio-Demographic Data Maps, below

Part VII - food retailing maps, UK (back to top)

Click here for INDEX MAP of UK - has your area been mapped yet?

Click here for INDEX MAP of EUROPE

Key to maps; map symbols this links to a page explaining in more detail the map symbols shown on the maps. For supermarket codes see supermarket code list

All UK maps are grid size 250 metres

Map name, number	Year of mapping	Area mapped (square kilometers)	Grid boundaries (N, S, E, W)
1) Lands End	No data	0	060 N, 010 S, 180 E, 130 W
2) Bodmin	No data	0	080 N, 030 S, 230 E, 180 W
3) Plymiuth & Torbay	No data	0	080 N, 030 S, 300 E, 230 W
4) Bude	No data	0	130 N, 080 S, 230 E, 180 W
5) Okehampton	No data	0	130 N, 080 S, 280 E, 230 W
6) Exeter	No data	0	130 N, 080 S, 330 E, 280 W
7) Yeovil & Weymouth	No data	0	130 N, 070 S, 380 E, 330 W
8) Bournemouth	2006	542	130 N, 070 S, 430 E, 380 W
9) Southampton & Portsmouth	2005 - 2006	1,036	130 N, 070 S, 480 E, 430 W
10) Brighton west & Chichester	No data	0	130 N, 080 S, 530 E, 480 W
11) Brighton esat & Eastbourne	No data	0	130 N, 080 S, 580 E, 530 W
12) Barnstaple	No data	0	180 N, 130 S, 280 E, 230 W
13) Cardiff & Minehead	No data	0	180 N, 130 S, 330 E, 280 W
14) Bristol & Bath	2007 - 2010	958	180 N, 130 S, 380 E, 330 W
15) Devizes	2006 - 2007	56	180 N, 130 S, 430 E, 380 W
16) Reading & Andover	2006 - 2007	751	180 N, 130 S, 480 E, 430 W
17) London SW & Aldershot	No data	0	180 N, 130 S, 530 E, 480 W
18) London SE & Maidstone	No data	0	180 N, 130 S, 580 E, 530 W
19) Ashford & Dover	No data	0	180 N, 110 S, 640 E, 580 W
20) Pembroke & Cardigan	No data	0	260 N, 190 S, 230 E, 170 W
21) Swansea	No data	0	230 N, 180 S, 280 E, 230 W
22) Merthyr Tydfil	No data	0	230 N, 180 S, 330 E, 280 W
23) Newport & Monmouth	No data	0	230 N, 180 S, 380 E, 330 W
24) Gloucester & Swindon	No data	0	230 N, 180 S, 430 E, 380 W
25) Oxford	No data	0	230 N, 180 S, 480 E, 430 W
26) London NW & Luton	2000 - 2005	187	230 N, 180 S, 530 E, 480 W
27) London NE & Chelmsford	2000 - 2009	199	230 N, 180 S, 580 E, 530 W
28) Southend & Colchester	No data	0	230 N, 180 S, 630 E, 580 W
29) Lampeter	No data	0	280 N, 230 S, 280 E, 230 W
30) Builth Wells	No data	0	280 N, 230 S, 330 E, 280 W
31) Hereford & Leominster	2010	93	280 N, 230 S, 380 E, 330 W
32) Worcester & Warwick	2003 - 2007	342	280 N, 230 S, 430 E, 380 W
33) Coventry & Northampton	No data	0	280 N, 230 S, 480 E, 430 W
34) Bedford	2005	19	280 N, 230 S, 530 E, 480 W
35) Cambridge & Newmarket	No data	0	280 N, 230 S, 580 E, 530 W
36) Ipswich	No data	0	280 N, 230 S, 660 E, 580 W
37) Barmouth	No data	0	340 N, 280 S, 280 E, 210 W
38) Welshpool	No data	0	330 N, 280 S, 330 E, 280 W
39) Shrewsbury & Telford	2007 - 2010	1,977	330 N, 280 S, 380 E, 330 W
40) Birmingham & Stafford	2000 - 2010	2,073	330 N, 280 S, 430 E, 380 W
41) Leicester	2007 - 2010	644	330 N, 280 S, 480 E, 430 W
42) Peterborough	No data	0	330 N, 280 S, 530 E, 480 W
43) Kings Lynn	No data	0	330 N, 280 S, 580 E, 530 W
44) Norwich	No data	0	350 N, 280 S, 660 E, 580 W
45) Anglesey	No data	0	400 N, 340 S, 280 E, 210 W
46) Denbigh	No data	0	390 N, 330 S, 330 E, 280 W
47) Chester & Crewe	2007 - 2010	1,296	380 N, 330 S, 380 E, 330 W
48) Stoke on Trent & Bakewell	2007 - 2010	665	380 N, 330 S, 430 E, 380 W
49) Nottingham & Chesterfield	No data	0	380 N, 330 S, 480 E, 430 W
50) Lincoln & Grantham	2005	68	380 N, 330 S, 530 E, 480 W
51) The Wash	No data	0	380 N, 330 S, 580 E, 530 W
52) Liverpool & Bolton	No data	0	430 N, 380 S, 380 E, 320 W
53) Leeds SW & Manchester	2002	60	430 N, 380 S, 430 E, 380 W
54) Leeds SE & Sheffield	2000 - 2004	233	430 N, 380 S, 480 E, 430 W
55) Scunthorpe & Grimsby	2004 - 2005	1,096	430 N, 380 S, 560 E, 480 W
56) Blackpool & Lancaster	No data	0	480 N, 430 S, 380 E, 310 W
57) Leeds NW & Burnley	2002	316	480 N, 430 S, 430 E, 380 W
58) Leeds NE & York	2002	109	480 N, 430 S, 480 E, 430 W
59) Beverley & Bridlington	2004 - 2008	31	480 N, 430 S, 540 E, 480 W
60) Isle of Man	No data	0	510 N, 460 S, 260 E, 210 W
61) Whitehaven	No data	0	530 N, 480 S, 330 E, 280 W
62) Kendal	No data	0	530 N, 480 S, 380 E, 330 W
63) Barnard Castle	No data	0	530 N, 480 S, 430 E, 380 W
64) Middlesborough	No data	0	530 N, 480 S, 480 E, 430 W
65) Scarborough	No data	0	530 N, 480 S, 530 E, 480 W
66) Stranraer	No data	0	580 N, 530 S, 230 E, 180 W
67) Newton Stewart	No data	0	580 N, 530 S, 280 E, 230 W
68) Dumfries & Maryport	No data	0	580 N, 530 S, 330 E, 280 W
69) Carlisle	No data	0	580 N, 530 S, 380 E, 330 W
70) Newcastle on Tyne	1999 - 2008	104	580 N, 530 S, 460 E, 380 W
71) Campbelltown & Girvan	No data	0	630 N, 580 S, 230 E, 160 W
72) Ayr & Cumnock	No data	0	630 N, 580 S, 280 E, 230 W
73) Moffat	No data	0	630 N, 580 S, 330 E, 280 W
74) Hawick	No data	0	630 N, 580 S, 380 E, 330 W
75) Alnwick	No data	0	630 N, 580 S, 440 E, 380 W
76) Islay	No data	0	680 N, 630 S, 180 E, 110 W
77) Bute	No data	0	680 N, 630 S, 230 E, 180 W
78) Glasgow	No data	0	680 N, 630 S, 280 E, 230 W
79) Edinburgh	No data	0	680 N, 630 S, 330 E, 280 W
80) Galashiels & Haddington	No data	0	680 N, 630 S, 380 E, 330 W
81) Berwick on Tweed	No data	0	680 N, 630 S, 430 E, 380 W
82) Colonsay	No data	0	730 N, 680 S, 180 E, 120 W
83) Inveraray	No data	0	730 N, 680 S, 230 E, 180 W
84) Callander	No data	0	730 N, 680 S, 280 E, 230 W
85) Perth & Dunferrmline	No data	0	730 N, 680 S, 330 E, 280 W
86) St Andrews	No data	0	730 N, 680 S, 380 E, 330 W
87) Coll & Tiree	No data	0	780 N, 730 S, 130 E, 080 W
88) Tobermory	No data	0	780 N, 730 S, 180 E, 130 W
89) Fort William	No data	0	780 N, 730 S, 230 E, 180 W
90) Rannoch	No data	0	780 N, 730 S, 280 E, 230 W
91) Pitlochry & Blairgowrie	No data	0	780 N, 730 S, 330 E, 280 W
92) Forfar & Montrose	No data	0	780 N, 730 S, 390 E, 330 W
93) Skye south	No data	0	830 N, 780 S, 180 E, 110 W
94) Glen Shiel	No data	0	830 N, 780 S, 230 E, 180 W
95) Kingussie	No data	0	830 N, 780 S, 280 E, 230 W
96) Grantown on Spey	No data	0	830 N, 780 S, 330 E, 280 W
97) Ballater	No data	0	830 N, 780 S, 380 E, 330 W
98) Aberdeen	No data	0	830 N, 780 S, 430 E, 380 W
99) Skye north	No data	0	880 N ,830 S, 180 E, 110 W
100) Kinlochewe	No data	0	880 N, 830 S, 230 E, 180 W
101) Inverness	No data	0	880 N, 830 S, 280 E, 230 W
102) Nairn & Elgin	No data	0	880 N, 830 S, 330 E, 280 W
103) Huntly & Macduff	No data	0	880 N, 830 S, 380 E, 330 W
104) Fraserburgh & Peterhead	No data	0	880 N, 830 S, 430 E, 380 W
105) Ullapool	No data	0	930 N, 880 S, 230 E, 160 W
106) Lairg	No data	0	930 N, 880 S, 280 E, 230 W
107) Helmsdale	No data	0	930 N, 880 S, 330 E, 280 W
108) Scourie	No data	0	980 N, 930 S, 230 E, 180 W
109) Tongue	No data	0	980 N, 930 S, 280 E, 230 W
110) Wick & Thurso	No data	0	980 N, 930 S, 340 E, 280 W
111) Outer Hebrides	No data	0	-
112) Orkney Islands	No data	0	-
112) Shetland Islands	No data	0	-
TOTAL UK		12,858

Part VIII - food desert maps of Denmark (Danish – fodevarer orkener,) (back to top)

	Map	Grid size	Area of map (sq. km).	date last extended
	Copenhagen	250 metres	365	27 July 2009
TOTAL DENMARK	TOTAL DENMARK		365

Part IX - food desert maps of Belgium (French - deserts d' alimentaire, Dutch – voedsel woestijn) (back to top)

	Map	Grid size	Area of map (sq. km).	date last extended
	Brussels (centre +south, east)	250 metres	60	21 May 2009
TOTAL BELGIUM			60

Part X - food desert maps of Germany (German - Lebensmittelwuste) (back to top)

	Map	Grid size	Area of map (sq. km).	date last extended
	Wiesbaden/Mainz	500 metres	705	17 June 2008
TOTAL GERMANY			705

Part XI - food desert maps of France (French - deserts d' alimentaire) (back to top)

	Map	Grid size	Area of map (sq. km).	date last extended
	Nantes	250 metres	671	15 July 2007
	Cevennes	500 metres	277	26 April 2006
TOTAL FRANCE			948

Global Total = 14,936 square kilometres

Future mapping planned:- London-Greenwich & southern Tower Hamlets;; Coventry, Rutland, Burton on Trent area; Crewe area, Wrexham area; south-west Shropshire..

If you need an area mapped, or previously-mapped area updated, with precise locational data of small shops, supermarkets, markets, ethnic-minority-oriented shops and more, please contact Dr Hillary Shaw at the address below.

Part XII –World Socio-Demographic Data Maps (back to top)

This section details global variations in a range of socio-demographic indicators of relevance to the social conditions underlying world retailing.

1) Death Penalty Map (map added 27 July 2010). Abolition of the death penalty within a national legal system is a sign of growing concern over, and recognition of, Human Rights in that country. Hence countries that have abolished the death penalty tend to be more liberal in many respects, with tolerance of many varied living arrangements and household types beyond the traditional nuclear family. If a country wants to join the European Union, it must also abolish the death penalty. Retailers and marketers have to take into account a wider range of consumer types, lifestyles, and consumption habits. Note, this map indicates the date on which the death penalty was officially abolished for all offences, including military and wartime. This date is often much later than the time when the death penalty cease to be used in practice by the courts.

2) Fertility rate map (map added 9 May 2010). This map shows the fertility rate (the number of children a woman is expected to bear during her lifetime) for 1970 and 2005. The replacement rate is 2.1 (not 2.0, because some children will die before they reach adulthood). Worldwide, fertility has fallen markedly in almost all countries, excepting a few African states. Green shades indicate countries where the fertility rate is below 2.1. In 1970 only some European states had below-replacement fertility rates, but by 2005 North America, Europe, even much of Asia and some Caribbean islands, were below-replacement levels. Even without migration, the population will not fall straightaway in a below-replacement state because low birth rates often go with higher prosperity and economic activity, especially for women; in such states, life expectancy rises and the population does not fall, but becomes older, with serious implications for pensions with fewer workers and more OAPs. Eventually, though, the population will begin to fall as the oldies die off; this is where Japan is now (2010). In much of Western Europe, immigration is more than balancing any population drop due to low birth rates; this may change as migrant birth rates also fall, and political toleration of continued immigration wanes. In Western European countries that attract fewer migrants, such as Italy and Germany, the population is beginning to fall. Few migrants head for Eastern Europe, and here population levels are returning to 1970s levels, especially in Russia where low birth rates combine with a high mortality rate, largely due to alcoholism. China’s fertility rate has fallen markedly due to its ‘One Child’ policy; an undesirable side effect of this has been selective female infanticide, threatening a socially-destabilising surplus of young unmarried men; China is now relaxing this policy. For retailers, a low fertility rate is a mixed blessing; on the one hand it generally goes with increased prosperity and consumer spending power, but also reduces retailing opportunities for child-oriented goods, and means an older customer base that is less willing to try new goods and will die sooner than younger customers. On the other hand a high fertility rate means poorer customers and a less-developed retail and transport infrastructure. Perhaps best for retailers is a middle-fertility / middle income nation such as Turkey, Mexico, or Brazil, where there are plenty of young customers and a growing retail market, but the country has not yet developed a significant supermarket sector and competition for new foreign-entrant supermarkets is as yet limited.

3) Male-Female Literacy Differential Map (map added 27 January 2010). This map indicates, not the overall level of literacy, but the gap between male and female literacy rates. A country where 55% of the men and 40% of the women can read scores the same, -15%, as a country where 85% of the men and 70% of the women are literate. Many countries cannot afford to educate, even to a basic level, all their citizens; however it is less clear why, in many countries, boys are consistently more privileged with a basic education than girls are. At a family level it may make financial sense to concentrate limited educational resources into the male children, as their potential earnings as men will be higher than for women. But nationally this impoverishes the country. Globally some 10% less women than men are literate; how many of these 350 million women, had they been given a basic education, would have gone on to produce great scientific or social innovations? Higher female literacy rates are usually associated with lower birth-rates, as these women have access to birth control and also can command higher work earnings. For retailers, a higher female literacy rate will likely mean an older, more educated, and more environmentally-conscious market, a shift from home cooking to prepared meals, smaller families, less children, and a higher % spend on luxury goods as the % household income going on essentials like food and shelter falls.

4) Obesity Map (map added 9 May 2010). Excluding micro-states such as Nauru, the USA has one of the world’s highest obesity rates; in Europe the territory of former Yugoslavia tops the fat league. Worldwide, being American (north or south), or speaking English, appear as risk factors for obesity. This is likely due to the stronger pro-capitalist work ethic in these countries, promoting long office hours and both family partners working at the expense of time for home cooking; eating ready-meals is a well-known factor for obesity. Middle-income countries such as Turkey, Poland, and Brazil may be at risk because in these countries the population has begun to move away from agricultural self-sufficiency and home cooking into urban living and office work, but low incomes constrain many of these urban households to cheaper foodstuffs, which tend to be less healthy and obesogenic. That is why the Pacific island of Nauru (not shown on this map) has a high obesity rate, because it imports in large quantities the cheaper fatty cuts of meat from New Zealand that would not sell well to wealthier countries in Europe, also Nauru has been devastated by phosphate mining and there is little land fit to grow local fruit and vegetables. For retailers, obesity is a CSR ( corporate social responsibility) issue; both consumers and the government are likely to ;look badly on your business if you are imposing social health costs by selling obesogenic food. McDonalds is a good example of a global food retailer which has taken steps to improve the health image of its food.

5) Population Growth Map (map added 27 January 2010). Between 1950 and 2009 the world population increased by a factor of 2.65, from 2,560 million to 6,800 million. There are enormous variations within this; come countries have seen their population increase by over 900%, whilst one territory, former East Germany, actually had a lower population in 2009 than it did in 1950, as did the US State of West Virginia. Globally, poorer countries have higher population growth rates, whilst population growth is lower both in wealthy countries and in formerly-prosperous industrial territories. Poorer countries often lack a State social security net for old age or sickness, and death rates are higher due to lower availability of medical care, so women have more children to ensure that at least some survive to look after the grandparents in their old age. Women’s earnings in poorer countries are often limited so having more children is less of a financial sacrifice. In wealthy countries, the State (or private pension schemes), not a multiplicity of younger family members, provides old age support, and women forego much more salary to have a child. In such prosperous lands, the birth-rate is often insufficient to maintain the population, which would be falling but for immigration from poorer regions. In formerly prosperous industrial regions, the birth-rate is low, and there is migration outwards, to wealthier places. For retailers, a high birth-rate may be attractive as it provides a growing market of long-term consumers; but it also tends to go with a lower disposable income per household. Middle-income countries like Poland, where there is opportunity for supermarket expansion and enough spending power to support new retailers, are perhaps the best bet for expansion abroad. In Western Europe the population growth is now almost all due to immigration, and retailers have had to take account of an increasingly diverse market in terms of food, annual holidays, clothes, Sharia-compliant finance, and many other products and services.

Part XIII- related sites (back to top)

Useful web links (22 August 2009)

If you have any comments or suggestions regarding this site, please email hshaw@harper-adams.ac.uk or  hillshaw@aol.com or write to Dr Hillary Shaw, Business Management and Marketing Department, Harper Adams University College, Edgmond, nr. Newport, Shropshire, TF10 8NB, United Kingdom